Whilst the impacts of climate change on natural systems are ubiquitous, they are occurring in a non-uniform manner across time and space. These complexities mean that developing conservation programmes to help mitigate climate change impacts on migratory species, which can span extensive geographical regions and habitat types, as well as crossing jurisdictional borders, is particularly challenging in comparison to the design of programmes for resident species. Part 2 of this review focusses on describing interventions that have been made to date to conserve migratory species in the context of climate change, and on how indicators can be used for monitoring climate change impacts. Through a review of the latest scientific literature, we discovered that although there are an increasing number of examples of conservation efforts promoting adaptation to climate change, there is limited documentation of the full extent to which this is taking place, and virtually no evaluation of the effectiveness of adaptation measures. Drawing on the articles we identified, however, we have been able to outline key considerations for the conservation of migratory species, and provide examples of studies that have demonstrated these. Foremost amongst these considerations is that, to maximise effectiveness and value for money, conservation interventions should, as far as possible, be based on robust evidence; furthermore, ongoing monitoring and re-evaluation is critical to the success of any conservation programme. This is especially true in a multi-species context where (1) the drivers may be indirect and interact with each other, and (2) the consequences of conservation actions might be conflicting for different taxonomic groups. This report thus proposes some additional steps to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) Framework for Action, including structured monitoring prior to implementing actions, followed by ongoing monitoring and evaluation of adaptation actions so that they can be adjusted as part of an adaptive management framework. One mechanism by which change can be monitored is through the use of indicators, and Part 2 of this review also considers the potential to develop ecological indicators of the impacts of climate change on migratory species, building on the evidence for impacts identified in Part 1. We conducted a rapid assessment of climate change indicators created since 2009 to highlight promising indicators that could be used to assess the climate change impacts on migratory species using the framework set out by Newson et al. (2009). We also discuss the urgent need to identify and test outcome-based indicators of climate change adaptation, to allow the effectiveness of adaptive measures and outcomes to be assessed as part of that monitoring and evaluation framework.

Climate change and migratory species: a review of impacts, conservation actions, indicators and ecosystem services Part 2 – Conserving migratory species in the face of climate change 5

In developing this report, we reviewed in detail a total of 51 articles that describe conservation interventions on CMS-listed (or closely related) species. All CMS taxonomic groups, apart from sharks, were represented, although there were biases towards some taxa (birds, reptiles and mammals) over others (insects, bats and fish). The scale of conservation interventions ranged from the broad designation of protected areas (that can benefit an extensive suite of species and habitats), to the management of particular habitats (e.g. restoration of coastal dunes for migratory birds), and fine-scale interventions to manage individuals (e.g. shading turtle nests). Only 23% of the studies involved more than one jurisdiction, despite the fact that all species considered in the review move through multiple countries during migration. To provide protection through their annual cycle, species require a coherent and interconnected network of passage and stopover sites along their migratory routes, in addition to maintaining habitats on their breeding and wintering grounds. A combination of regional (multi-national) and local (site-specific) conservation actions will be required to achieve this. The establishment of effective networks of protected areas for migratory species, that span key migratory pathways, should be a high priority, necessitating ongoing collaboration among nations. Recognising, and accounting for, the extent of climate-induced range shifts will be critical to the continued efficacy of designating protected areas, in all ecosystems. If based on robust evidence, conservation management interventions at key points in the annual cycle can have a relatively high probability of efficacy in increasing resilience to specific climate change impacts. However, conservation programmes often involve trade-offs and conflicts, as well as synergies and opportunities, between multiple conservation and climate change mitigation

programmes (explored in detail in Part 3 of this review). These considerations include the socio- economic and cultural well-being of local communities, the conservation of multiple species

and habitats, and developments aimed at mitigating the ongoing impacts of climate change. Care should thus be taken to account for these complications when implementing conservation programmes and monitoring the consequences of adaptation actions on those multiple objectives. Indicators of climate change impacts can assist in monitoring climate change impacts across species and the effectiveness of conservation interventions. However, further work is required to identify the most appropriate indicators for each region.